Scope:
This article attempts to understand and explore the Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy as detailed by experts in the field of social theories such as anthropology, sociology, population studies etc… This paper only attempts at outlining the various practices of Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy as discussed by social literature and does not discuss statistics, advantages or disadvantages of each type as such additions can make this paper a very lengthy read. This paper also reports and portrays examples of societies where certain specific practices related to Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy are found.
Incest:
Incest, in a layman’s term, can be defined as the sexual intercourse or sexual relationships of any form that exist between close family members or relatives and is against the moral code of ethics practiced in that society . It can also be defined as an illegal sexual relationship that exists between closely related family members.
The definition of close family members or relatives differs between cultures. It can range from including ones own family – a family of orientation to even very distant relatives in certain societal cultures. The range of family members who by all definitions fall under the ambit of close relatives includes one’s father, mother and siblings. In other words any form of sexual relationship within a consanguineal family might be termed as incest. Some societies define incest as any form of sexual relationship that exists not only between blood relatives but between anyone who lives under the same household or who belong to clan/lineage. Therefore this might also include ones uncles, aunts, grandparents, cousins etc… other than the blood relatives. Some societies even extend the definition to include moral relationships formed through adoption or marriage. Even the type of sexual activity that can exist between family members generally termed as an incest relationship differs from society to society and from culture to culture.
Incest is seen as a strict taboo in most of the societies. Incest taboos include rules and regulations that guide the sexual behavior of a person in a family and prohibits all forms of sexual relationships and activities between close relatives.
Types of Incestuous relationships:
Incestuous relationships can be between two consenting adults or between two children or even in between a child and an adult.
Incest between two consenting adults:
Incestuous relationships even though they exist between two consenting adults (here adults are defined as individuals aged 18 and above) can be seen as an illegal and immoral relationship by societies. Incestuous relationships between adults can be between Parent and offspring, between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, in laws and can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times.
Parent and offspring: Consensual sexual relationship between this pair mostly remains a secret in several cultures as this is highly abhorred. Much research in this area might be warranted. This form of relationship can include :
Father and Son: Gay sex existing between father and son. This sexual relationship might normally include oral sex or anal sex.
Father and Daughter: Can include a sexual relationship between a biological father and daughter. Step father- step daughter sexual relationships can also be included under this form of incest.
Mother and Son: Can include sexual relationships between biological mother and son and even between step mother and step son.
Mother and Daughter: Can be termed as a lesbian relationship. This sexual relationship might normally include oral sex.
As quoted earlier other forms of consenting sexual relationships might include sexual relationships between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, in laws and can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times.
An unknown, ignorant incestuous relationship between two children can exist and is not considered abnormal if within certain limits. But, sexual abuse can also be a resultant factor of this form of relationship and can psychologically affect the children involved.
Further, the non-consensual incestuous relationship between an adult and a child is considered to be a severe form of immoral sexual activity equivalent to a rape. Normally in this form of relationship the consensus does not come from the child (an individual younger than 18 years) and is usually forced into a sexual relationship by the adult. Again as quoted above, sexual relationships between Parent and offspring, between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times. One of the most reported areas of incestuous relationships include father-daughter and step-father-step-daughter. Further, this kind of relationship between a parent and his/her offspring normally arises if one parent is dysfunctional of some kind. Further, this can psychologically affect the children involved.
Sexual abuse of children is now seen as severe lapse of law and can result in legal punishments leading to several years in prison. Several child rights organizations now partake in helping avoid child sex abuse. Further, there are several communities and non-governmental organizations and not-for profit organizations helping victims of child sex abuse and incest.
Freudian Psychoanalytic Theories on Incestuous relationships:
Sigmund Freud states the feelings exhibited in a desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex by eliminating parent of the same sex as a complex called “Oedipus complex”. In short, this can be called as a strong sexual attraction of a boy towards his mother. The name takes after a Greek mythological character called Oedipus, who kills his father to marry his mother. Similarly a girl’s sexual attraction towards her father is stated as an Electra complex. Freud states that this complex is common and is responsible for unconscious guilt.
Relationship between Cousins:
This relationship between cousins in some societies can lead to marriages and differs from other incestuous relationships. Not all societies see this marriage as an incestuous marriage. Cousin relationships can be of two forms Cross-cousins and Parallel-cousins.
Cross Cousins:
Cross Cousins are an individual’s father’s sister’s children or an individual’s mother’s brother’s children.
Parallel Cousins:
Parallel Cousins are an individual’s father’s brother’s children or an individual’s mother’s sister’s children. Parallel Cousin marriages in certain societies are considered a taboo while cross cousin marriages are favored.
Understanding Incest helps in understanding why certain societies follow exogamy and endogamy in their marriage system. This paper next moves on to looking at exogamy and endogamy forms of marriage.
Exogamy:
A set of social rules that govern marriage laws where the partner is selected outside a certain social group can be called as Exogamy. An individual’s social group might be his/her own community, clan, or kin group. Marrying outside an individual’s village or a group of villages can also be termed as exogamy. Exogamy is an exclusion practice which explains who should not be selected as a partner and why. Social groups can differ from society to society and culture to culture. Most societies are exogamous when it comes to marrying ones one parents or siblings. Certain societies even consider distant relatives such as uncles, aunts, grandparents etc as a social group which cannot be selected as marriage partners, failing which might lead to incest as discussed earlier. Social relationship distance between individuals and relationship patterns are key factors in determining marriage partners.
In certain societies, cousins might not fall under this exogamous group and will be considered as potential mates, again as seen above the relationship between an individual and his/her cousin also plays an important role. While Cross cousins may be seen as potential partners, parallel cousins can be seen as an exogamous group between whom marriage relationship is seen as a taboo. Similarly as stated above the relationship distance between cousins also play an important role, for example: first cousins might be considered exogamous, while second cousins might be potential partners. Further, some societies only consider patrilateral descent cousins as exogamous and some societies consider matrilateral cousins as exogamous. Some societies even see adopted kins as an exogamous group, while some consider their entire clan/phrateries/lineage to be an exogamous group.
Ember and Ember in their book on Anthropology state an example of a village called Rani Khera in India where 266 married women had come from approx 200 different villages with distances between 12 to 24 miles. Nearly 220 local women had gone to approx 200 villages by marriage and nearly 150 households in this village now are linked to approx 400 in other villages.
Exogamy thus has its own advantages where in new relationships are formed with people outside. Exogamy is practiced for political and economic gains too, other than just for avoiding genetic health problem. Other reasons for exogamy might include low population density in certain societies, psychological and emotional beliefs. For example: People of Yap islands in Micronesia who are related through women are usually referred to as people of one belly and they have a belief that there would not be any female children and the group would become extinct if one married inside his/her kinship group.
Endogamy:
Endogamy can be stated as a set of social rules which regulates an individual to marry within a certain group. An individual’s social group might be his/her own community, clan, or kin group. Once again Social relationships and social relationship distances determine the rules of endogamy. Endogamy might include a set of distant relatives, friends and others who are considered potential mates for an individual. This is again based on a set of social norms. Marriage with people beyond a strict social group might not be desirable. Endogamy is an inclusion practice which explains who should be selected as a partner and why.
Cross cousins in certain might fall under this group and will be considered as potential mates, again as seen above the relationship between an individual and his/her cousin also plays an important role. While Cross cousins may be seen as potential partners belonging to an endogamous group, parallel cousins can be seen as an exogamous group between whom marriage relationship is seen as a taboo. Similarly as stated above the relationship distance between cousins also play an important role, for example: first cousins might be considered exogamous, while second cousins might be potential partners. Further, some societies only consider matrilateral cousins as endogamous and similarly some societies consider patrilateral cousins as endogamous.
Endogamy is also practiced for political and economic gains. Certain families might feel that power and wealth should not go out of a stipulated social group and thus end up marrying within a social group. Other reasons for exogamy might include psychological and emotional beliefs. An example often quoted is that of Cleopatra marrying her own brother, so that the royal blood is within the family and does not spread out.
Marriage in Indian caste system is another example of endogamy; marriage partners for individuals are chosen within a specific social group, in this case –a particular caste. Marriage alliance between a higher caste and lower caste is considered a taboo and people of higher caste believe that they would get polluted by marrying people of lower caste.
Conclusion:
One can reasonably argue that societies have a wide range of exogamous and endogamous practices in marriage in order to circumvent the concept of incest. As discussed these concepts are very relative and can vary widely between societies and cultures. Most of what mankind practices today is an evolvement of social practices and rules formed, governed and strengthened after years of keen observation. Hard social rules aren’t bent for economic or political considerations, but soft social rules are bent and exploited in order to satisfy man’s carnal desires. Exogamy, Endogamy and Incest are also social practices which have undergone social changes and are bent and exploited based on how societies look at them- Hard or Soft. Several researchers still survey societies periodically to understand the dynamics of the ever changing human relationships. Further, Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy are social rules and practices which are dynamic and will keep evolving. Newer research might be needed to study these practices in detail.
References:
1) Ember, Ember and Peregrine (2007): Anthropology, 12th Edition; Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd for Pearson Education, India
2) http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/ (2010): O’Neil, Dennis, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, California.
3) Wikipedia: The online encyclopedia
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