Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy

Scope:

This article attempts to understand and explore the Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy as detailed by experts in the field of social theories such as anthropology, sociology, population studies etc…  This paper only attempts at outlining the various practices of Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy as discussed by social literature and does not discuss statistics, advantages or disadvantages of each type as such additions can make this paper a very lengthy read. This paper also reports and portrays examples of societies where certain specific practices related to Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy are found.

Incest:

Incest, in a layman’s term, can be defined as the sexual intercourse or sexual relationships of any form that exist between close family members or relatives and is against the moral code of ethics practiced in that society . It can also be defined as an illegal sexual relationship that exists between closely related family members.

The definition of close family members or relatives differs between cultures. It can range from including ones own family – a family of orientation to even very distant relatives in certain societal cultures.  The range of family members who by all definitions fall under the ambit of close relatives includes one’s father, mother and siblings. In other words any form of sexual relationship within a consanguineal family might be termed as incest. Some societies define incest as any form of sexual relationship that exists not only between blood relatives but between anyone who lives under the same household or who belong to clan/lineage. Therefore this might also include ones uncles, aunts, grandparents, cousins etc… other than the blood relatives.  Some societies even extend the definition to include moral relationships formed through adoption or marriage. Even the type of sexual activity that can exist between family members generally termed as an incest relationship differs from society to society and from culture to culture. 

Incest is seen as a strict taboo in most of the societies. Incest taboos include rules and regulations that guide the sexual behavior of a person in a family and prohibits all forms of sexual relationships and activities between close relatives. 

Types of Incestuous relationships:  

Incestuous relationships can be between two consenting adults or between two children or even in between a child and an adult.

Incest between two consenting adults: 

Incestuous relationships even though they exist between two consenting adults (here adults are defined as individuals aged 18 and above) can be seen as an illegal and immoral relationship by societies. Incestuous relationships between adults can be between Parent and offspring, between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, in laws and can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times.

Parent and offspring: Consensual sexual relationship between this pair mostly remains a secret in several cultures as this is highly abhorred. Much research in this area might be warranted. This form of relationship can include :

Father and Son: Gay sex existing between father and son. This sexual relationship might normally include oral sex or anal sex. 

Father and Daughter: Can include a sexual relationship between a biological father and daughter. Step father- step daughter sexual relationships can also be included under this form of incest. 

Mother and Son: Can include sexual relationships between biological mother and son and even between step mother and step son.

Mother and Daughter: Can be termed as a lesbian relationship. This sexual relationship might normally include oral sex.

As quoted earlier other forms of consenting sexual relationships might include sexual relationships  between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, in laws  and can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times.

An unknown, ignorant incestuous relationship between two children can exist and is not considered abnormal if within certain limits. But, sexual abuse can also be a resultant factor of this form of relationship and can psychologically affect the children involved.

Further, the non-consensual incestuous relationship between an adult and a child is considered to be a severe form of immoral sexual activity equivalent to a rape. Normally in this form of relationship the consensus does not come from the child (an individual younger than 18 years) and is usually forced into a sexual relationship by the adult. Again as quoted above, sexual relationships between Parent and offspring, between siblings, between aunt –nephew, aunt-niece, uncle-nephew, uncle-niece, can even go on to include grandparents and grandchildren and even an entire family at times. One of the most reported areas of incestuous relationships include father-daughter and step-father-step-daughter. Further, this kind of relationship between a parent and his/her offspring normally arises if one parent is dysfunctional of some kind. Further, this can psychologically affect the children involved. 

Sexual abuse of children is now seen as severe lapse of law and can result in legal punishments leading to several years in prison. Several child rights organizations now partake in helping avoid child sex abuse. Further, there are several communities and non-governmental organizations  and not-for profit organizations helping victims of child sex abuse and incest. 

Freudian Psychoanalytic Theories on Incestuous relationships:

Sigmund Freud states the feelings exhibited in a desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex by eliminating parent of the same sex as a complex called “Oedipus complex”. In short, this can be called as a strong sexual attraction of a boy towards his mother. The name takes after a Greek mythological character called Oedipus, who kills his father to marry his mother. Similarly a girl’s sexual attraction towards her father is stated as an Electra complex. Freud states that this complex is common and is responsible for unconscious guilt.  

Relationship between Cousins:

This relationship between cousins in some societies can lead to marriages and differs from other incestuous relationships. Not all societies see this marriage as an incestuous marriage. Cousin relationships can be of two forms Cross-cousins and Parallel-cousins.

Cross Cousins:

Cross Cousins are an individual’s father’s sister’s children or an individual’s mother’s brother’s children. 

Parallel Cousins:

Parallel Cousins are an individual’s father’s brother’s children or an individual’s mother’s sister’s children. Parallel Cousin marriages in certain societies are considered a taboo while cross cousin marriages are favored.

Understanding Incest helps in understanding why certain societies follow exogamy and endogamy in their marriage system. This paper next moves on to looking at exogamy and endogamy forms of marriage.

Exogamy:

A set of social rules that govern marriage laws where the partner is selected outside a certain social group can be called as Exogamy. An individual’s social group might be his/her own community, clan, or kin group. Marrying outside an individual’s village or a group of villages can also be termed as exogamy. Exogamy is an exclusion practice which explains who should not be selected as a partner and why. Social groups can differ from society to society and culture to culture. Most societies are exogamous when it comes to marrying ones one parents or siblings. Certain societies even consider distant relatives such as uncles, aunts, grandparents etc as a social group which cannot be selected as marriage partners, failing which might lead to incest as discussed earlier. Social relationship distance between individuals and relationship patterns are key factors in determining marriage partners.

In certain societies, cousins might not fall under this exogamous group and will be considered as potential mates, again as seen above the relationship between an individual and his/her cousin also plays an important role. While Cross cousins may be seen as potential partners, parallel cousins can be seen as an exogamous group between whom marriage relationship is seen as a taboo. Similarly as stated above the relationship distance between cousins also play an important role, for example: first cousins might be considered exogamous, while second cousins might be potential partners.  Further, some societies only consider patrilateral descent cousins as exogamous and some societies consider matrilateral cousins as exogamous. Some societies even see adopted kins as an exogamous group, while some consider their entire clan/phrateries/lineage to be an exogamous group. 

Ember and Ember in their book on Anthropology state an example of a village called Rani Khera in India where 266 married women had come from approx 200 different villages with distances between 12 to 24 miles. Nearly 220 local women had gone to approx 200 villages by marriage and nearly 150 households in this village now are linked to approx 400 in other villages.

Exogamy thus has its own advantages where in new relationships are formed with people outside. Exogamy is practiced for political and economic gains too, other than just for avoiding genetic health problem. Other reasons for exogamy might include low population density in certain societies, psychological and emotional beliefs. For example: People of Yap islands in Micronesia who are related through women are usually referred to as people of one belly and they have a belief that there would not be any female children and the group would become extinct if one married inside his/her kinship group.

Endogamy:

Endogamy can be stated as a set of social rules which regulates an individual to marry within a certain group. An individual’s social group might be his/her own community, clan, or kin group. Once again Social relationships and social relationship distances determine the rules of endogamy. Endogamy might include a set of distant relatives, friends and others who are considered potential mates for an individual. This is again based on a set of social norms. Marriage with people beyond a strict social group might not be desirable. Endogamy is an inclusion practice which explains who should be selected as a partner and why.

Cross cousins in certain might fall under this group and will be considered as potential mates, again as seen above the relationship between an individual and his/her cousin also plays an important role. While Cross cousins may be seen as potential partners belonging to an endogamous group, parallel cousins can be seen as an exogamous group between whom marriage relationship is seen as a taboo. Similarly as stated above the relationship distance between cousins also play an important role, for example: first cousins might be considered exogamous, while second cousins might be potential partners. Further, some societies only consider matrilateral cousins as endogamous and similarly some societies consider patrilateral cousins as endogamous. 

Endogamy is also practiced for political and economic gains. Certain families might feel that power and wealth should not go out of a stipulated social group and thus end up marrying within a social group. Other reasons for exogamy might include psychological and emotional beliefs. An example often quoted is that of Cleopatra marrying her own brother, so that the royal blood is within the family and does not spread out. 

Marriage in Indian caste system is another example of endogamy; marriage partners for individuals are chosen within a specific social group, in this case –a particular caste. Marriage alliance between a higher caste and lower caste is considered a taboo and people of higher caste believe that they would get polluted by marrying people of lower caste.

 

Conclusion:

One can reasonably argue that societies have a wide range of exogamous and endogamous practices in marriage in order to circumvent the concept of incest. As discussed these concepts are very relative and can vary widely between societies and cultures. Most of what mankind practices today is an evolvement of social practices and rules formed, governed and strengthened after years of keen observation. Hard social rules aren’t bent for economic or political considerations, but soft social rules are bent and exploited in order to satisfy man’s carnal desires. Exogamy, Endogamy and Incest are also social practices which have undergone social changes and are bent and exploited based on how societies look at them- Hard or Soft. Several researchers still survey societies periodically to understand the dynamics of the ever changing human relationships. Further, Incest, Exogamy and Endogamy are social rules and practices which are dynamic and will keep evolving. Newer research might be needed to study these practices in detail. 

References: 

1)    Ember, Ember and Peregrine (2007): Anthropology, 12^th Edition; Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd for Pearson Education, India 

2)    http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/ (2010): O’Neil, Dennis, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, California. 

3)    Wikipedia: The online encyclopedia

Gudiyam Caves

Introduction:

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,                                                   
…  And miles to go before I sleep,

              ------ Robert Frost in “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”

These might be the exact words that might cross one’s mind while on a trek to Gudiyam Caves.

“Gudiyam Caves” popularly known as a destination into a prehistoric world comprises of rocks and/or stone shelters of human ancestors who probably lived thousands of years ago. This place derives its name from the little village situated in its foothills named “Gudiyam”.  Gudiyam caves as it is famously called has been frequented by Archaeologists, Anthropologists, Geologists, tourists and trekkers from various parts of India and the world, each with their own objective and surprisingly this place provides enough content for all such curious seekers.

Gudiyam caves totaling sixteen in number provides an interesting infesting ground of knowledge for Anthropologists as this place is said to have been populated by pre historic men in ancient times. Ancient times here could mean thousands and/or millions¹ of years ago. With its virginity and ruggedness still maintained, it definitely impresses lay men and scientists alike for a worthy exploration.

Location – Where is this Gudiyam cave situated?

Surprisingly, with all its pristine rugged beauty, it stands with all of its majesticity very close to one of the biggest Metropolitan cities of India – “Chennai”. The village of Gudiyam is situated in the district of Thiruvallur, close to Poondi. Poondi reservoir is well known and is another famous tourist spot. The reservoir of Poondi is approx seventy kms from Chennai and the village of Gudiyam is around fifteen kms from Poondi. The largest town close to Poondi would be Thiruvallur. Gudiyam caves cannot be reached by vehicles and requires a trek of approximately three kms to four kms from Gudiyam village, with the help of some village folks. With sixteen caves situated in the hills, the trek to the caves can be energy consuming. The path is through a forest laden with pebbles. The greenery at Gudiyam is definitely a sign that not many tourists to Poondi have explored this site, but even those few who visit this place have made their presence felt by disposing polythene covers and other wastes carelessly.

What is Gudiyam? What is its Significance?

Gudiyam caves, as already stated takes its name from a village called “Gudiyam” on the foothills of these caves. Gudiyam caves is the name given to a group of sixteen caves that were said to have been occupied and used by prehistoric men thousands of years ago. The caves of rocks and stones provided shelter to these men against animals and nasty weather conditions. These mountains/rocks etc… are hypothesized to have been formed through volcanic eruptions. 

These caves serve an interesting purpose to anthropologists and archaeologists as the entire path that leads to these caves as well as these caves might be laden with not just pebbles and stones but actual weapons, stone tools and artifacts belonging to an entirely different age. The discovery and research of these have proved to be a huge victory and turning point in Indian archaeology as they prove the existence of man in Tamil Nadu, India more than half a million years ago².

Discovery of Gudiyam:

Gudiyam caves were supposedly discovered by Sir Robert Bruce Foote after his accidental discovery of Stone tools at Pallavaram in Chennai in 1863 followed by some artifacts at Poondi³. Sir Robert Bruce Foote was a geologist and his discovery of the Gudiyam cave was the first of its kind in India⁴. In 1963, Archaeological Survey of India excavated this Rock Shelter ⁵. Since then there have been several Archaeologists, Anthropologists, Geologists and free lance researchers who have visited this site and have written extensively about this place. Infact, the museum at Poondi which displays several of the stone tools and artifacts discovered at Gudiyam stands a testimony to the research carried out on this place. Even the University of Madras, Dept of Ancient History and Archaeology has experts who have done extensive research on Gudiyam.

What can one find at Gudiyam?

The trek from the Gudiyam village to Gudiyam caves is laden with pebbles and stones of various kinds, but if one thinks that these are just stones, he/she might be highly mistaken as one might have been walking over a bed or even a treasure house of knowledge in the shape of ancient stone tools. Good observation skills coupled with some basic knowledge of stone tools and pre history can lead one to find several full worked or half worked stones. “Worked Stone” here does not mean the work of nature but that of pre – historic men of ancient times. With keen observation of “Flakes” on such stones, patterns in such flaking and shape and size of such worked stones, one can identify interesting tools such as “Hand Axes”, “Cleavers”, “Borers”, “Scrapers” etc…

Experts say that this region is laden with a stone used to make these implements and call for the presence of cores. They place “Hand Axes” and  “Cleavers” as main components of Madras industries (one of the two industries of stone tools of Paleolithic age in India based on manufacturing techniques and geographical features)⁶. Experts also view the findings at Korttalaiyar valley in and around Thiruvallur, as belonging to this group⁷.

Why were these tools/caves utilized?

Living patterns change every few years even during our life time in the contemporary world, therefore life a million years ago would have been very different from what it is today. “Pre-historic men” as the ancient men are addressed lived in a very different world where they did not know agriculture and lived a nomadic life fearing animals and nature. Their main source of food could have been roots, fruits and animals. Raw flesh of animals must have formed a good portion of their appetite, and such raw flesh or even digging out roots could have been tough sometimes and use of such stone tools as “Hand Axes”, “Cleavers”, “Borers”, “Scrapers” etc… must have definitely come in handy. They might have not been the best invented tools but they might have definitely served their purpose. As necessity is said to be the mother of invention, the necessity to guard themselves against animals and still satisfy their hunger could have led them to develop crude but useful tools.

Further, to hide themselves from animals and nature’s fury they might have found themselves shelter in such caves and trees. Infact out of the sixteen caves that exist at Gudiyam today, archaeologists estimate that six caves must have been used as shelters by Pre historic men. Further, archaeologists also hypothesise that these caves must have only served as temporary shelters to a group of nomadic prehistoric men⁸.

Some of these tools discovered from these caves are displayed at Museums today. A visit to the Poondi museum might throw extensive knowledge on these tools and their hypothesized uses.

Flora and Fauna at Gudiyam:

Due to the occupation of Pre-historic men, one can hypothesise that this place must have been laden with a reasonable level of flora and fauna even in ancient days. There must have definitely existed trees/plants with edible fruits, edible roots and nuts. Further, small animals such as rabbits, rats etc… might have existed and Pre historic men would have satisfied their hunger through hunting these small animals with stone tools they manufactured. Today one can find several trees which serve as wood for the village folks. Snakes, rabbits and rats can also be found in abundance.

One of the caves has several bee hives and just in case these kinds of bee hives had existed during the time of Pre-historic men they could have served as good source for honey, provided they knew the technique of extracting honey.

Today, one does not find any source of water like rivers, lakes, ponds etc… but they could have existed during the ancient days. Rainwater and fresh water springs must have been a good source of water. Even today, when people clap hands it is hypothesized that water drops in a cave due to sound vibrations.

Contemporary Gudiyam:

Today, one of the larger caves is used by the village folks as a temple for Manachamman ( could have been derived from Minakshi Amman). The cave is nearly 110 ft in height with 200 ft in breadth and can hold close to 200 people at any given time. Village people frequent this temple during Chitrapoornima day and celebrate and worship the Manachamman goddess⁹.

Conclusion:

Gudiyam caves is a treasure grove of knowledge on ancient Pre-historic men, our ancestors. Surprisingly even though no bones and/or skulls were discovered here, this site still throws a lot of light on how the human race lived and emerged over centuries. This might be due to the fact that Gudiyam caves only served as a temporary residence to a nomadic group of our ancestors. More knowledge on these Pre-historic men will/should only make us feel proud that as a race we have come a long way and still have a long way to go. The place is slowly exploited by the contemporary generation. A place that might very well prove to be an example of Man’s Eco Friendly Nature might get lost as a Place of Man’s Eco Enmity. The caves have started becoming a dumping ground for polythene covers and other ecologically dangerous products. Destruction of these caves and stone tools might prove costly and can make us ignorant of an entire generation that existed thousands/millions of years before the contemporary human society.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

------ Robert Frost in “Stopping By Woods on a Snowy Evening”

The promises to keep would be promises to safeguard this beautiful testimony to the advancement of Human Race and restore and help conserve Gudiyam caves virginity.

 REFERENCES:

1. 1-9:  Sridhar, T.S, I.A.S. Poondi and Gudiyam Cave:  Pre Historic Sites of Tamilnadu, Kalvettu Magazine, Quarterly Journal Publication of Tamil Nadu State Dept of Archaeology., 2004.
2. www.google.com - search results on Gudiyam Caves